Infections of the nervous system are among the most difficult infections in terms of the morbidity and mortality posed to patients, and thereby require urgent and accurate diagnosis. Although viral meningitides are more common, it is the bacterial meningitides that have the potential to cause a rapidly deteriorating condition that the physician should be familiar with. Viral encephalitis frequently accompanies viral meningitis, and can produce focal neurologic findings and cognitive difficulties that can mimic other neurologic disorders. Brain abscesses also have the potential to mimic and present like other neurologic disorders, and cause more focal deficits. Finally, other infectious diseases of the central nervous system, such as prion disease and cavernous sinus thrombosis, are explored in this review.

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Context: Prophylactic antibiotics, paired with wound care and surgical intervention, is considered the standard of care for patients with open fracture. Guidelines from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST) recommend specific prophylactic antimicrobial therapy based on the type of open fracture. Aims: We quantified adherence to EAST guideline recommendations and documented the incidence of infection in patients with open fracture. Settings and Design: A retrospective, observational study of all patients with open fracture admitted to our facility from January 2004 to December 2008 was conducted. Materials and Methods: Patients were divided into compliant and noncompliant groups according to the EAST guideline recommendations. Compliance was defined as an appropriate spectrum of therapy for guideline suggested duration. We assessed for surgical and non-surgical site infections, and morbidity outcomes. Statistical Analysis: Nominal data were explored using summary measures. Continuous variables were compared using the Student t-test or the Mann-Whitney U-test. Dichotomous data were compared using χ² statistic or Fisher's exact test. Results: The final analysis included 214 patients. Prophylactic antibiotics were guideline compliant in 28.5% of patients, and ranged from 10.0% in type 3b fractures to 52.7% in type 1 fractures. The most common reason for non-compliance was the use of guideline recommended coverage that exceeded the suggested duration (71.2%). Patients who received non-compliant therapy required prolonged hospital lengths of stay (6 vs. 3 days, P = 0.0001). The overall incidence of infection was similar regardless of guideline compliance (17.0% vs. 11.5%, P = 0.313). Conclusions: Prophylactic antibiotics for open fracture frequently exceeded guideline recommendations in duration and spectrum of coverage, especially in more severe fracture types. Non-compliance with EAST recommendations was associated with increased in-hospital morbidity.

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Remodeling, a continuous physiological process maintains the strength of the bones, which maintains a delicate balance between bone formation and resorption process. This review gives an insight to the complex interaction and correlation between the bone remodeling and the corresponding changes in host immunological environment and also summarises the most recent developments occuring in the understanding of this complex field. T cells, both directly and indirectly increase the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor kB ligand (RANKL); a vital step in the activation of osteoclasts, thus positively regulates the osteoclastogenesis. Though various cytokines, chemikines, transcription factors and co-stimulatory molecules are shared by both skeletal and immune systems, but researches are being conducted to establish and analyse their role and / or control on this complex but vital process. The understanding of this part of research may open new horizons in the management of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, resulting into bone loss and that of osteoporosis also.

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Background and Context: Different adjuvants been tried out for neuraxial anesthesia in emergency caesarean section so that the dose of the local anesthetic can be reduced and hypotension thereby prevented. Aims and Objectives: The present study was carried out in patients presenting for emergency lower segment caesarean section (LSCS) to establish the dose of intrathecal clonidine that would allow reduction of the dose of local anesthetic (thereby reducing the incidence and magnitude of hypotension) while at the same time providing clinically relevant prolongation of spinal anesthesia without significant side effects. Materials and Methods: This randomized clinical study was carried out in our institution among 100 pregnant females who underwent emergency caesarean section. The participants were divided randomly into four groups: A, B, C, and D, each comprising 25 parturients. Subarachnoid block was performed using a 26G Quincke needle, with 12 mg of hyperbaric bupivacaine (LA) in group A, 9 mg of LA + 30 μg of clonidine in group B, LA + 37.5 μg of clonidine in group C, and LA + 45 μg of clonidine in group D. The solution was uniformly made up to 2.2 mL with normal saline in all the groups. Onset of analgesia at T ₁₀ level, sensory and motor blockade levels, maternal heart rate and blood pressure, neonatal Apgar scores, postoperative block characteristics, and adverse events were looked for and recorded. Statistical analysis was carried out with SPSS^® version 10.0 for Windows^® , using the ANOVA test with post hoc significance, the Chi-square test, and the Mann-Whitney U test. P<.05 was considered significant and P<.0001 as highly significant. Results: One hundred patients were enrolled for this study. The four groups were comparable with regard to demographic data and neonatal Apgar scores. Onset and establishment of sensory and motor analgesia was significantly shorter in groups C and D, while hypotension (and the use of vasopressors) was significantly higher in groups A and D. Perioperative shivering, nausea, and vomiting were significantly higher in groups A and D, while incidence of dry mouth was significantly higher in group D. Conclusions: The addition of 45 μg, 37.5 μg, and 30 μg of clonidine to hyperbaric bupivacaine results in more prolonged complete and effective analgesia, allowing reduction of up to 18% of the total dose of hyperbaric bupivacaine. From the results of this study, 37.5 μg of clonidine seems to be the optimal dose.

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Negative pressure pulmonary edema (NPPE) following the use of the laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is an uncommon and under-reported event. We present a case of a 58-year-old male, who developed NPPE following LMA use. After biting vigorously on his LMA, the patient developed stridor upon emergence, with concurrent appearance of blood-tinged, frothy sputum and pulmonary edema. He subsequently required three days of mechanical ventilation. After discontinuation of mechanical ventilation the patient continued to require additional pulmonary support using continuous positive airway pressure, with a full facemask, to correct the persistent hypoxemia. His roentgenographic findings demonstrated an accelerated improvement with judicious administration of intravenous furosemide.

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Background: Dexmedetomidine is an α2-receptor agonist used for sedation in the intensive care unit (ICU). It is currently FDA indicated for short-term use (i.e., less than 24 h). Objectives: To compare the safety and efficacy of dexmedetomidine if given long- term (>24 h) to short-term infusion (up to 24 h) for mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Materials and Methods: The medical records of 73 patients were evaluated. Primary outcomes were significant changes in blood pressure or heart rate. Secondary outcomes included hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay (LOS), ventilator time, rate of reintubation, and rate of death. Statistical Analysis: Pair wise comparisons were based on independent student t-test for continuous data and Chi-square test for categorical data. Statistical difference was defined as P value < 0.05. Results: Of the patients evaluated, 50 received dexmedetomidine for more than 24 h and 23 patients received this agent for 24 h. Patients were similar at baseline except for age. Patients who received dexmedetomidine for more than 24 h were similar to the short-infusion arm in terms of the rate of bradycardia (8.6% vs10%; P = 0.22), hypotension episodes (30.4% vs 28%; P= 0.2), requirement of treatment for those episodes (37% vs 42%; P= 0.43), hospital LOS (30 days vs 38 days; P = 0.45), ICU LOS (14 days vs 19 days; P = 0.44), ventilation days (8 days vs 14 days; P =0.58), rate of reintubation (4% vs 10%; P = 0.79) and mortality (P = 0.2). Conclusion: Long-term dexmedetomidine infusion (> 24 h) had similar safety and clinical outcomes in patients receiving this agent for short-term. Due to the retrospective nature of our investigation, more well-designed studies are needed to confirm these findings.

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Fournier's gangrene (FG) is a life-threatening, rapidly progressive necrotizing infection. If not recognized and treated early, it is associated with high morbidity and mortality. The classic physical exam findings of crepitus are seen in approximately two-thirds of patients during the early stages of FG. Focused bedside sonography performed in cases of suspected gangrene represents an excellent adjunct in confirming the presence of subcutaneous gas and other signs of necrotizing infection. We present an illustrative case of a patient with FG who was evaluated with focused bedside ultrasonography.

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